POLITICAL PARTICIPATION

Political participation is an essential element of political system. Political participation varies from country to country. In countries, where the system either denies more participation or has no respect for it and people do not participate in it, the chances of political instability or revolution become bright. Until recently, most debates on popular participation in politics were confined to voting in elections and to an examination of the various correlations of such activity.

What is political participation? Mcclosky says that political participation is a voluntary activity in policy-making, and a voluntary activity in selecting policy makers. Here, by policy-making we mean, an indirect or direct influence over the policy-making.

Wasburn gives another broader definition: political participation is about those acts, which are directed towards acquisition and exercise of power. This can be included in every political system.

Nie and Verba believe that political participation is an activity, which is within the framework of any system. Let’s note that ‘violence’ is not a political participation. They also believe, political participation is that activity that can be undertaken by ordinary people in order to influence policy-making.

Political participation is a system in which people have a right and are actually involved in political institutions and processes.

The methods of political participation are: Voting, participation in propaganda activities, participation in political parties, membership in pressure groups, activating political parties and pressure groups, maintain contacts with legislators, offer oneself as candidate, hold press conferences, arrange demonstrations, form trade unions and arrange strikes, financial contributions, expressing symbols, etc.  

Verba and Nie distinguish four main modes of political participation, as follows: 1. Voting. 2. Campaign activity. 3. Communal activity. 4. Particularized contacts.

These activities are fairly self-evident except perhaps for the last two. Communal activity includes contacting local officials about social issues, and particularized activity includes contacting local officials on highly specific problems. The modes differ along certain important dimensions.

1. The amount of initiative each act requires or how much time, effort and resources are involved.

2. The scope of the potential outcome; whether it affects all citizens or only few of them.

3. The amount of conflict entailed by the act; how much opposition is raised, whether policies involve a redistribution of benefits and costs.

4. The type of influence exerted by the act; whether the act conveys information to the leaders or pressures to conform to a policy.

Three criteria --- time, money and physical threat constitute the cost of political participation. For instance, voting requires less time, less risk, and less money. It also gives less benefit. But, contesting an election requires much time, money and risk, and gives more benefit.

Political activities are arranged at hierarchical level --- higher the level is, higher the cost and benefit is. Communal activities require initiative, create little conflict and have collective outcomes. Campaign activities are more obviously linked to conflictive activities.

Verba and Nie find that the different forms of participation appeal to persons of different types of orientations. The three basic orientations studied are:

1. Psychological involvement in politics, measured by interest in and attention to public affairs.

2. Partisanship, measured by strength of party identification.

3. Sense of contribution to the community welfare based on the respondent’s belief that he/she makes such contribution.

For example, voting act does not require much psychological involvement. Campaign activity is associated with psychological involvement, partisanship and sense of contribution to the community. Communal activity correlates highly with psychological involvement again, but not with partisanship.

With particularized activity there is little association with partisanship or sense of community usefulness, and only a modest relationship with psychological involvement. They suggest that the campaign and communal activities is the core of political participation.

Higher socio-economic status at both aggregate and individual levels increases the likelihood of political participation. The importance of social status as a cross-national influence was seen in the Almond and Verba’s survey. Britain and America had more participants than Italy and Mexico had, largely because, they were more economically and socially developed and therefore contained more people with high social and economic backgrounds. Social and economic changes produce changes in social structure, which in turn correlate with increased rates of political participation. Thus, higher level of socio-economic development in a country and higher social status among individuals can increase the level of political participation.

Now, the question, which may arise is, what is the reason that makes people to participate at higher level?  ‘Power’ can be considered the reason.

Followings are the issues that can discuss the role of psychological and social factors that determine political participation.

1. Gender: Mostly speaking, men are more likely to participate in politics than women, it is because, women have less opportunity and have lower social status. Obviously, this can be resulted from culture. Nonetheless, there are many women who have reached to the topmost positions both in the west and in the east. We can take example of people like Margaret Thatcher the former prime minister of Britain. Binazir Bhutto, the former prime minister of Pakistan, C. Rice, the current secretary of the United States, and many other examples.

2. Education:  Usually, in the west research studies indicate that level of education of individuals who participate in politics is higher than that of many non-western countries. Generally speaking, educated people are more conscious about their roles in political participation.

3. Age: Age is a vital factor in politics. It has been claimed that the middle age people participate more in politics.    

4. Religion: Today religion plays an important role in political participation. For instance, in India, at the time of elections, political parties approach religious leaders so that get a support from them, and in this regard, those religious leaders who hold good religious status and public support are more respected than the rest. In the same country, the Hindus are more active in political participation than the other religious communities.

5. Race:  Those who belong to culturally advanced races are more active participants in politics than the others e.g. in the USA, the white are culturally more advance than the blacks.

6. Tribe: Those who belong to higher tribes participate more in politics than other tribal people e.g. we can refer to some tribes in Balochistan of Pakistan.

7. Class or economic status: Except some cases, low class people participate less in politics. Poor people participate at lower level, meaning that in many instances their participation is confined only to voting. The middle class and high-class people dominate politics.

8. Caste: In India, other backward classes (OBC) and scheduled caste vote more than high caste people. Thus, in this country voting percentage is higher among lower castes. A middle class, with wealthy background, and a man, not woman participate at higher level in politics. In the USA, usually if one is black, catholic and woman may not reach the top in politics.

9. Social status: Social power can bring political power.

10. Group environment: This also plays its own important role in politics. 

11. Residence: Those who live in those areas, which are considered the center of political activity or live in politically sensitive parts, can be more active than others. 

12. Power factor: Those who participate at higher levels actually seek power, because power can bring prestige, respect and authority. In a dictatorship usually when one reaches the topmost, one will be reluctant to give up one’s position. We can take example of Saddam Huassain’s final story in Iraq. 

What is the theory of political participation? We participate in politics to bring about a democratic system. Almond and Verba in their ‘Civic Culture’ concluded that combination of three orientations i.e. parochial, subject, and participate, results into a routine, stable and democratic system. A stable democracy is possible only when there is a civic culture.

Theory of political participation says that all need not to participate and this is good for the stability of a democracy. Most people do not live up to the classical democratic prescription to be interested in, informed about, and active in politics. However, a sizeable percentage of people must participate and choose their public officials to insure responsiveness of officials. Moderate level of participation is useful. 

Scope of political participation --- Earlier political participation took into consideration citizens’ participation in electoral processes through voting, campaigning, and such other political activities as discussing politics, contributing money for party work, etc. But, later on the concept has widened to include all behavior through which people directly express their political opinions. Except voting and campaigning, which are well known methods, Rush and Althoff give the following issues. 

Seeking political or administrative office; Holding political or administrative office; Active membership in political organizations; Private membership in political organizations; Active membership in interest or pressure groups; Passive membership in interest or pressure groups; Participation in informal political discussions; Participation in public meetings, demonstrations, etc; And, general interest in politics.